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Climate smart agriculture Aims to tackle three main objectives: sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions contemporary women's health issues for today and the future 5th edition cheap dostinex 0.25 mg visa, where possible womens health ukiah ca order 0.5 mg dostinex overnight delivery. Co-management Process of management in which government shares power with resource users, with each given specific rights and responsibilities relating to information and decision-making. Comminution the action of reducing a material, especially a mineral ore, to minute particles or fragments. Commons A concept whereby some forms of wealth belong to all, and that these community resources must be actively protected and managed for the good of all. Cultural (ecosystem) services the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Sarukhбn & Whyte, 2005) defined cultural ecosystem services as "the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences". Cultural ecosystem services have been included in many other typologies of ecosystem services and referred to variously as cultural services (Constanza, 1997), life-fulfilling functions (Daily, 1999), information functions (de Groot et al. Customary law Law based on tradition in communities where the authority of traditional leadership is recognised. It exists where there is a commonly repeated practice which is accepted as law by the members of a community. Degraded land Land in a state that results from persistent decline or loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services that cannot fully recover unaided. Degrowth (or downscaling) A theoretical frame invoking the necessity of downscaling and relocalizing production. Denitrification A heterotrophic process of anaerobic microbial respiration conducted by bacteria. Denitrification is the microbial oxidation of organic matter in which nitrate or nitrite is the terminal electron acceptor, and the end product is N2. Desertification Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Disaster Risk Reduction the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events. Downscaling the transformation of information from coarser to finer spatial scales through statistical modelling or spatially nested linkage of structural models. Direct drivers include, inter alia, climate change, pollution, land use change, invasive alien species and zoonoses, including their effects across regions. Interactions between indirect and direct drivers create different chains of relationship, attribution, and impacts, which may vary according to type, intensity, duration, and distance. Global indirect drivers include economic, demographic, governance, technological and cultural ones, among others. Dry forest Tropical and sub-tropical dry forests occur in climates that are warm year-round, and may receive several hundred centimetres or rain per year, they deal with long dry seasons which last several months and vary with geographic location. Drylands Tropical and temperate areas with an aridity index (annual rainfall/annual potential evaporation) of less than 0. Decomposition Breakdown of complex organic substances into simpler molecules or ions by physical, chemical and/or biological processes. Ecological (or socio-ecological) breakpoint or threshold the point at which a relatively small change in external conditions causes a rapid change in an ecosystem. When an ecological threshold has been passed, the ecosystem may no longer be able to return to its state by means of its inherent resilience. Ecological footprint A measure of the amount of biologically productive land and water required to support the demands of a population or productive activity. Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a region, a nation or humanity as a whole. Ecological infrastructure the natural or semi-natural structural elements of ecosystems and landscapes that are important in delivering ecosystem services. It is similar to "green infrastructure", a term sometimes applied in a more urban context. The ecological infrastructure needed to support pollinators and improve pollination services includes patches of semi-natural habitats, including hedgerows, grassland and forest, distributed throughout productive agricultural landscapes, providing nesting and floral resources. Larger areas of natural habitat are also ecological infrastructure, although these do not directly support agricultural pollination in areas more than a few kilometres away from pollinatordependent crops. Ecological integrity the ability of an ecosystem to support and maintain ecological processes and a diverse community of organisms. Ecological marginalization the take-over of local natural resources by private and/or state interests, and the gradual or immediate disorganization of the ecosystem via withdrawals and additions. Instruments typically encompass a wide range of designs and implementation approaches.
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Nevertheless breast cancer diet buy dostinex 0.25 mg with mastercard, the exact biophysical processes and degradation outcomes are women's health center clinton 0.25mg dostinex with visa, in many cases, insufficiently known. This presages one of the key findings of the chapter that is the dearth of data hence, the critical need for new techniques and routine monitoring programmes. The objective of this chapter is to assess the status and trends of the biophysical aspects of degradation to provide connecting links between: the identification and motivations of the human drivers of degradation (Chapter 3) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005); the current status and trends of the biophysical processes on ecosystem services (this Chapter); the resultant livelihood and well-being implications (Chapter 5); and the effectiveness of existing interventions and responses to mitigate and prevent degradation or restore land (Chapter 6). This Chapter gives an overall introduction to the degradation process, detecting degradation, designation of baselines and history. Many believe they can recognize it when they see it (in the field or with satellite imagery), yet the confusion in the literature belies this view. The definition of the term has led to interminable reviews (see review by Vogt et al. The effects of stress caused by human activities to which organisms are susceptible, and therefore the ecosystem service they provide. The ecosystem service responds rapidly, almost linearly to the particular stress involved (from point 2 to 3), until the stress declines. As the stress declines from right to left in Figure 1, further increases in the service. In curve 2 to 3 (blue) the degree of anthropogenic stress determines the level of ecosystem service over the full range, until point 3 when the stress is so high that it has no further effect. The second curve (5 to 6) reaches a threshold (5) at which the response to stress is non-linear and the ecosystem changes to a new state that cannot return to the upper level, no matter how much the stress is alleviated. On the other hand, there are conditions in which stress drives down the provision of the service, as illustrated by curve 5 to 6, until it reaches a threshold (point 5) (Turnbull et al. Most importantly the ecosystem service cannot be recovered no matter how much the stress is relieved. In this level of degradation, shown as the lower part of the red curve, the ecosystem reaches its completely degraded condition (point 3): this is the permanently degraded condition described in Vogt et al. The analogy of response curves is helpful only when one anthropogenic stress is involved, but normally there are many that affect ecosystem services, such as soil type, pollution, soil compaction, loss of palatable species for livestock, and reduced productivity all in one location. The first is those that are caused by the physical environment with no human involvement, and the second, those that are brought about by human action alone (anthropogenic stresses). While a service may be resilient to the full range of anthropogenic stresses when there is negligible environmental stress, a moderate environmental stress moves the anthropogenic response curve closer to the threshold. A further increase in environmental stress drives the site over the cusp and into the zone of permanent degradation, from which no return is possible without drastic, expensive and lengthy artificial remediation. Typically, neither anthropogenic nor environmental stresses alone drive the site into the permanently degraded zone, but when they work together catastrophic loss of services can ensue. These concepts lead to recognition of six types of "degradation" shown in Table 4. Recognition of this distinction can be difficult, but it is critical when assessing the status and planning for restoration the initial failure to recognize these two states and their difference from true degradation has caused much confusion, for example understanding of Sahelian "desertification" (see Chapter 1 and Section 4. The ecosystem service(s) is represented by the vertical dimension and the ecosystem dynamics by movement over the surface. The higher up on the surface in the vertical dimension, the higher the ecosystem service. The top two edges represent stress from the natural environmental (left) and anthropogenic stress (right). The fold or cusp in the surface (5) represents the threshold of a zone of permanent degradation. Sites that move over the threshold of resilience on any trajectory cannot return to the upper zone of resilience. A second surface shown below (7) represents a site that naturally provides lower environmental services, but is not initially degraded: it has all the features of the upper surface including resilience and the possibility of permanent degradation (see Section 4. A lot of "degradation" mapping is actually about measuring differences in the potential of the ecosystem to provide services, not degradation of that potential (Vagen et al.
Averages are taken across countries for each region womens health 10k chicago dostinex 0.25 mg discount, with 9-10 countries in Africa breast cancer 7 cm cheap 0.5mg dostinex visa, depending on year of analysis, 19-20 in the Americas, 13-16 in Asia and the Pacific and 32 in Europe. Some countries were excluded as they have over 5 years of data gap between 20082016. Those countries are Cambodia, China, Fiji, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Liechtenstein, Madagascar, Morocco, Pakistan, Philippines, Turkey, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Source: Data from Forest Stewardship Council, modified by Task Group on Indicators and Knowledge and Data Technical Support Unit. When considering trends separately for natural and plantation forests, the area under natural forests declined by 6% (which is twice the total estimate) between 1990 and 2015, from 3961 M ha to 3721 M ha (Keenan et al. This decline was offset to some extent by a 66% increase in the area of planted forest (including rubber plantations) from 168 M ha in 1990 to 278 M ha in 2015 (Keenan et al. In 2015, altogether, 56% of planted forests were located in the temperate zone, 15% in boreal, 20% in tropical, and 9% in subtropical area. The top 20 countries accounted for approximately 85% of planted forest area globally, with the largest areas found in China (91. The Forest Resources Assessments data also show that from 2010 to 2015 there was a natural expansion of forest in abandoned agricultural lands of 2. However, most countries and regions showed a decrease in the expansion rate (annualized percent change) between 2010-2015 relative to earlier time periods, with the exception of East Africa where percentage change in planted forest area has consistently increased over time to peak at 2. Although the total forest area of these countries has remained relatively stable, covering over 75% of total land area, the area of old-growth forests has decreased. In Finland, the area of forest stands older than 160 years has decreased by a quarter during the past 15 years (Kotiaho, 2017). Combined industrial and fuelwood removals in the tropics increased by 35% (nearly 4 million m3) over 1990 - 2015 or 1. Industrial and fuelwood removals over 1990 2015 increased most rapidly in lower-middle and lower income countries (Kцhl et al. Logging intensities - stem removals per ha - have been particularly high across Southeast Asia, where forests are dominated by commercially valuable, high density dipterocarp tree species that enable logging intensities more than ten times higher than in Africa or the Americas. Between 1990 and 2009 some 80% of Malaysian Borneo was affected by high-intensity, multiple cycle logging or clearing operations (Bryan et al. A recent study reported a nearly 45% loss of the total forest cover in Indonesia from 2000 to 2010 caused by four major industries: logging, wood fibre plantations, oil palm, and coal mining (Abood et al. Millions of people, mostly in developing countries and often the most impoverished and vulnerable members of communities, rely on non-timber resource products for their subsistence, to supplement diets and income, and to meet their medicinal needs (Arnold & Perez, 2001; Barata et al. Although extraction of non-timber resource products is often assumed to be ecologically less destructive than timber extraction and other land uses (Arnold & Perez, 2001; Fearnside, 1989; Forget & Jansen, 2007; Schwartzman et al. The extraction of, and reliance on, nontimber resources including fuelwood and medicinal plants is typically highest in developing nations and in rural areas (Barata et al. Although the majority of non-timber resource products harvested tend to be consumed or used by the people that collect them, a substantial amount is nevertheless traded in local, regional and global markets (Belcher et al. Thus, both local and external drivers can determine the extent and nature of non-timber resource harvest. With increasing urbanization, dependence on non-timber resources can decline as livelihoods, lifestyles, patterns of consumption and cultural values change, and alternatives become available. This, however, does not always translate to lowered resource extraction and land degradation in rural areas. For instance, despite widespread urbanization and reductions in the proportions of urban and rural households relying on fuelwood, the nationwide demand for fuelwood in India continued to increase between 1993 and 2005, largely as a result of population growth and increasing total number of households (DeFries & Pandey, 2010). Also, despite lowered reliance on fuelwood, charcoal still remains the predominant source fuel for many people living in cities, the production of which takes place in, and can drive resource extraction from, rural communities (May-Tobin, 2011). Studies have shown that forests around the Tanzanian capital of Dar es Salaam have been exploited for charcoal and timber in concentric waves that have expanded over time (Ahrends et al. Urban centres are also responsible for driving unsustainable levels of exploitation of other non-timber resources including plant products and bush meat across the tropics (Brashares et al.
In the final section of this chapter pregnancy implantation best order dostinex, we place land degradation problems and potential restoration solutions within the wider policy context and describe other indirect drivers which can also be root drivers of both land degradation and land restoration women's health program birth control dostinex 0.5mg. We consider interactions between land degradation, restoration and other major policy areas addressing agriculture, water, climate, infrastructure, and biodiversity. Where possible, we endeavor to separate information related to decision making levels and entities. Information, knowledge and tools decision makers need to develop strategies on land degradation and restoration (8. Institutional competencies to design and implement strategies on land degradation and restoration, with a specific focus on national level actions and abilities (8. Interactions between policies to halt land degradation and restore degraded lands, and other major policy areas (8. We address decision-making as a process over time as opposed to a single, discreet moment in time. Throughout the process, different questions need to be addressed which require insight into both biophysical and social systems. A study from southern Africa shows that local land managers participate in the collection and reporting of data, especially when tangible benefits come out of this process (Reed et al. In this section, we describe decision support tools and their related information and knowledge sources which can support decisions makers in identifying and mapping current and future land degradation problems. The methods behind these decision support tools employ qualitative or quantitative measures to assess the severity of land degradation and enumerate degradation footprints. Here we describe the functionality of the most commonly used qualitative and quantitative land degradation assessment tools per spatial level (and see Table 8. The tool calculates the amount of biologically-productive land and sea area available to provide the resources for a given population and absorb its wastes - with its current state of technology and management practices. Effective decision support tools are of paramount importance to address land degradation problems. Decision support tools can provide insight into the extent and severity of land degradation and possible future alarming scenarios influencing decision makers to initiate conservation or restoration initiatives. A response process to halt or reverse land degradation is more effective when the problem assessment is carried out in a participatory way (Borrini-Feyerabend et al. Specifically, stakeholder participation can increase the likelihood that environmental decisions are perceived to be holistic and fair, accounting for a diversity of values and needs and recognizing the complexity of human-environmental interactions (Richards et al. One of its components assesses the loss in soil productivity as a result of human-induced land degradation, its effect on the carbon cycle, nutrient balance and crop productivity. The Red List aims to: (i) provide scientifically-based information on the status of species and subspecies at a global level; (ii) draw attention to the magnitude and importance of threatened biodiversity; (iii) influence national and international policy- and decisionmaking; and (iv) provide information to guide actions to conserve biological diversity. For regional or national levels, a range of tools is available to assess land degradation through soil related measures (see Table 8. Though these models are widely used, the erosion and hydrological flux associated soil organic matter movement requires coupling to multiple hydrological and erosion models. These process-based models are very accurate owing to their capabilities to simulate and describe the spatial distribution of degradation, but are heavily dependent on local and spatial input databases on land-use, soil and weather information. Lack of field validation and uncertainty in model parameters are major barriers in their applicability to areas where local databases are very scarce. Other tools mostly applied at regional or national levels focus on land degradation from a biological perspective (see Table 8. Land degradation assessments at global or regional levels can provide a coarse resolution assessment to identify large areas and patterns or types of areas likely to have degradation problems. But due to the coarse resolution of these assessments, the management units related to the exact degradation becomes difficult to locate. As halting and reversing land degradation requires location-specific solutions and multi-sectoral collaboration, global and/or regional decision support tools do not provide any prescriptive solutions to combat the degradation problem. The model simulates land-use and/or land-cover change dynamics with various feedback loops and assesses the consequences of the resulting land-use mosaics on economical utilities and ecosystem services.
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