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In the 1758 publication Systema Naturae symptoms right after conception discount zofran 4mg with mastercard, Linnaeus assigned humans the genus name Homo treatment croup buy discount zofran 4mg on-line, meaning "person. In the present-day classification, the apes and monster people have long been removed, and our species, Homo sapiens, remains as its only living representative. But ever since scientists have acknowledged the existence of extinct species of humans, they have debated which of these display sufficient "humanness" to merit classification in our genus. When grouping species into a common genus, biologists will consider criteria such as physical characteristics (morphology), evidence of recent common ancestry, and adaptive strategy (use of the environment). However, there is disagreement about which of those criteria should be prioritized, as well as how specific fossils should be interpreted in light of the criteria. There is general agreement that species classified as Homo should share characteristics broadly similar to our species. Some researchers would include larger overall body size and limb proportions (longer legs/shorter arms) in this list. There is also an apparent decline in sexual dimorphism (body-size differences between males and females). While these criteria seem relatively clear-cut, evaluating them in the fossil record has proved more difficult, particularly for the earliest members of the genus. First, many fossil specimens dating to this time period are incomplete and poorly preserved, making them difficult to evaluate. Second, early Homo fossils appear quite variable in brain size, facial features, and teeth and body size, and there is not yet consensus about how to best make sense of this diversity. Finally, there is growing evidence that the evolution of the genus Homo proceeded in a mosaic pattern: in other words, these characteristics did not appear all at once in a single species; rather, they were patchily distributed in different species from different regions and time periods. Consequently, different researchers have come up with conflicting classification schemes depending on which criteria they think are most important. In this chapter, we will take several pathways toward examining the origin and evolution of the genus Homo. First, we will explore the environmental conditions of the Pleistocene epoch in which the genus Homo evolved. Next we will examine the fossil evidence for the two principal species traditionally identified as early Homo: Homo habilis and Homo erectus. Then we will use data from fossils and archaeological sites to reconstruct the behavior of early members of Homo, including tool manufacture, subsistence practices, migratory patterns, and social structure. Finally, we will consider these together in an attempt to characterize the key adaptive strategies of early Homo and how they put our early ancestors on the trajectory that led to our own species, Homo sapiens. As indicated in Chapter 7, scientists use a variety of techniques to reconstruct ancient environments. These include stable isotopes, core samples from oceans and lakes, windblown dust, analysis of geological formations and volcanoes, and fossils of ancient plant and animal communities. Such studies have provided valuable information about the environmental context of early Homo. The early hominin species covered previously, such as Ardipithecus ramidus and Australopithecus afarensis, evolved during the late Pliocene epoch. Since the term "Ice Age" tends to conjure up images of glaciers and woolly mammoths, one would naturally assume that this was a period of uniformly cold climate around the globe. Instead, climate became much more variable, cycling abruptly between warm/wet (interglacial) and cold/dry (glacial) cycles. Since mountain ranges, wind patterns, ocean currents, and volcanic activity can all influence climate pattern, climate change had extreme effects on the environment in some regions but less effects on others. This is where warming of the Pacific Ocean in the equator region influences rainfall, hurricane frequency, and other weather activity in different parts of the world. An adaptive strategy that could buffer against this kind of uncertainty would have been extremely valuable.

They learn these perspectives through participant-observation fieldwork: a method that involves living with treatment impetigo generic zofran 4mg, observing treatment eczema generic zofran 8mg amex, and learning from the people one studies. For cultural anthropologists, no aspect of human life is outside their purview: They study art, religion, healing, natural disasters, video gaming, even pet cemeteries. While many cultural anthropologists are intrigued by human diversity, they realize that people around the world share much in common. In the early twentieth century in the United States, people wondered if the emotional turbulence of American adolescence was caused by the biology of puberty (and thus natural and universal) or something else. To find out, Mead set off for the Samoan Islands, where she lived for several months getting to know Samoan teenagers. She learned that Samoan adolescence was not angst-ridden (like it was in the United States), but rather a relatively tranquil and happy life stage. Upon returning to the United States, Mead wrote Coming of Age in Samoa, a best-selling book that was both sensational and scandalous (Mead 1928). Cultural anthropologists do not always travel far to provide insight into human experience. To answer this question, he lived with Puerto Rican crack dealers in East Harlem, contextualizing their experiences both historically (in terms of socioeconomic dynamics in Puerto Rico and in the United States) and presently (in terms of social marginalization and institutional racism). Rather than blame crack dealers for their poor choices or blame our society for perpetuating inequality, he argued that both individual choices and social inequality can trap people in the overlapping worlds of drugs and poverty (Bourgois 2003). While other animals have communication systems, only humans have complex, symbolic languages-more than 6,000 of them! Human language makes it possible to teach and learn, to plan Introduction to Biological Anthropology 7 and think abstractly, to coordinate our efforts, and to contemplate even our own demise. The Spanish language arguably expresses more nuanced versions of love than the English language One intriguing line of linguistic anthropological research focuses on the relationships between language, thought, and culture. It may seem intuitive that our thoughts come first; after all, we like to say, "Think before you speak. At the same time, Malotki recognized that English and Hopi tenses differ, albeit in ways less pronounced than Whorf proposed (Malotki 1983). Still others explore how language is crucial to socialization: children learn their culture and social identities through language and nonverbal forms of communication (Ochs and Schieffelin 2012). Archaeology Archaeologists focus on the material past: the tools, food, pottery, art, shelters, seeds, and other objects left behind by people. Prehistoric archaeologists recover and analyze these materials to reconstruct the lifeways of past societies that lacked writing. They ask general questions about humankind: When and why did humans first develop agriculture? One key method that archaeologists use to answer their questions is excavation-a method of careful digging and removing of dirt and stones to uncover material remains while recording their context. Archaeological research spans millions of years from human origins to the present. Based on her findings, she argued that Jericho is the oldest city continuously occupied by different groups of people (Kenyon 1979). For example, the Garbage Project, which began in the 1970s, is an archaeological project based in Tucson, Arizona. It involves excavating a contemporary landfill as if it were a conventional dig site. Archaeologists found a difference between what people say they throw out and what is actually in their trash. In fact, many landfills hold large amounts of paper products and construction debris (Rathje and Murphy 1992).

Low-arched runners had significantly more medial medicine 48 12 generic 4mg zofran mastercard, soft tissue treatment ingrown hair cheap 4mg zofran fast delivery, and knee injuries, while high-arched pes cavus foot types sustained more lateral, bony, and foot injuries. The authors describe that the injury patterns correlated planus foot types with greater rearfoot motion and higher velocities stressing more medial and soft tissue structures. Conversely, high-arched cavus foot types run with stiffer gait patterns and higher vertical load rates, sustaining more shock-related problems, such as stress fractures. C and D, Subtalar pronation and supination linked with tibial rotation and knee flexion-extension. The cavovarus-type foot strikes the ground in an inverted position, and rearfoot eversion motion is typically limited, diminishing the shock-absorbing capacity of the subtalar joint. This excessively supinating foot type commonly presents with a plantarflexed first metatarsal. Laterally directed overload can occur with resultant ankle instability, Jones fracture of the fifth metatarsal, metatarsalgia, peroneal tendon pathologies, and sesamoiditis. The gluteus medius, upper gluteus maximus, and posterior tensor fascia lata stabilize the pelvis in the frontal plane during rapid transfer of the body weight onto the loading leg when running (Figure 10-14). Muscle stabilization is required because the base of the body vector shifts to the supporting foot while controlling the center of gravity. Weight transfer while running produces a large medial torque at the hip that causes the unsupported side of the pelvis to drop, hence the stabilization requirement of hip muscles firing at approximately 35% of maximal muscle tension even with simple walking. Internal rotation of the limb in the transverse plane also must be controlled during the loading response. The lower extremity is neurophysiologically wired for concomitant knee flexion, tibial and femoral internal rotation, and foot pronation when loading from airborne to landing postures. Muscular stability provides boundary to this knee flexion, hip internal rotation, and hip adduction pattern. Excessive internal rotation and adduction of the femur lead to potentially injurious transverse and frontal plane motions. Hip internal rotation is decelerated by the external rotational effects of the gluteus maximus muscle action. During running, maximum pronation occurs at approximately 45% of the total stance time when measured by rearfoot calcaneal eversion angle. Knee extension and concomitant lower leg external rotation and supination provides propulsion stability. Buchbinder et al50 theorized that excessive pronation causes prolonged lower extremity internal rotation in late stance phase when it would normally undergo external rotation. Disruption of this normal timing relationship may result in tissue overload and injury patterns throughout the lower kinetic chain. Powers et al13 report on an alignment profile of excessive foot pronation; excessive heel angle; and an associated increased, laterally directed resultant quadriceps and patellar tendon forces in the frontal plane. They describe the lateral resultant force production with increased contact forces and contact pressures on the lateral aspect of the patellofemoral joint. A B Figure 10-8 A, Therapist-assisted mobility training linking supination with tibial external rotation. Figure 10-9 Functional pronation and supination mobility exercise linked to total leg rotation. A B Figure 10-12 A, Dynamic ankle dorsiflexion squat stretch with functional stimulation from upper extremities, hip, and knee. B Figure 10-13 A, Pes planus feet tend to have greater medially directed lower extremity stress. Powers et al13 describe altered lower extremity kinematics of the femur and tibia in the transverse and frontal planes and its effects on patellofemoral joint mechanics. They describe bottom up and top down influences to the patellofemoral joint and its movement mechanics. Excessive frontal plane valgus and transverse plane tibial and/or femoral rotation increase the Q-angle as the patella displaces medially relative to anterior superior iliac spine. In contrast, misbalance and altered mechanics could result in excessive knee varus load placed in the frontal plane.

Some of the adaptive genes that were important include genes associated with immunity treatment zoster ophthalmicus purchase 4 mg zofran with mastercard, adapting to new diets medicine 3x a day 8mg zofran overnight delivery, adapting to new altitudes as well as genes involved in skin color and hair traits were introgressed. The Future of Genetic Studies We are continuing to learn how introgressed genes affect modern humans. Interesting research has also shown that introgressed alleles might produce different gene expression profiles when compared to nonintrogressed alleles. However, there is a lot of research that needs to be done to fully understand the effects of introgression on modern populations and how it might have assisted modern humans who migrated out of Africa. To extract the hominin sequences, we will need to use the known sequence information. Known sequences will also assist with differentiating between which hominins are represented in the sediment. The Archaic Homo 431 availability of more Neanderthal and Denisovan samples will also help us understand which genetic changes were fixed and defined these populations. Homo naledi Found in 2013 by recreational spelunkers, a collection of bones was uncovered in a deep cave network in Johannesburg, South Africa. The cave system, known as Rising Star, had been well documented by other cavers; however, it appears few people had ever gone as far into the cave as these spelunkers had. Lee Berger, paleoanthropologist at University of Witwatersrand, in Johannesburg, immediately put out a call for what he termed "underground astronauts" to begin recovery and excavation of the fossil materials. Unlike other excavations, Berger and most other paleoanthropologists would not be able to access the site, as it was incredibly difficult to reach, and at some points there was only eight inches of space through which to navigate. The underground astronauts, all petite, slender female anthropologists, were the only ones who were able to access this remarkable site. Armed with small excavation tools and a video camera, which streamed the footage up to the surface, the team worked together and uncovered a total of 1,550 bones, representing at least 15 individuals, as seen in Figure 11. Later, an additional 131 bones, including an almost-complete cranium, were found in a nearby chamber of the cave, representing three more individuals (Figure 11. Berger called in a team of specialists to participate in what was dubbed "Paleoanthropology Summer Camp. With various specialists working simultaneously, more rapid analysis was possible of Homo naledi than most fossil discoveries. The features of Homo naledi are well-documented due to the fairly large sample, which represents individuals of all sexes and a wide range of ages. The skull shape and features are very much like other members of the genus Homo, including features such as a sagittal keel and large brow, like Homo erectus, and a well-developed frontal lobe, similar to modern humans, yet the brain size is significantly smaller than its counterparts, at approximately 500 cc (560 cc for males and 465 cc for females). The teeth also exhibit features of later members of the genus Homo, such as Neanderthals, including a reduction in overall tooth size. Homo naledi also had unique shoulder anatomy and curved fingers, indicating similarities to tree-dwelling primates, which is very different from any other hominin yet found. The date on the species, which was obtained some time after the fossils were first analyzed, indicates that Homo naledi lived between 335,000 and 236,000 years ago. This has been perhaps the greatest shock of all about Homo naledi, as this places this fossil as a contemporary to modern Homo sapiens, despite the very primitive features it retains. The skull shape and features are very much like other members of the genus Homo, including features such as a sagittal keel and large brow like Homo erectus and a well-developed frontal lobe, similar to modern humans. The brain size, however, is significantly smaller than its counterparts, at approximately 500 cc. Other remarkable aspects of the find is the placement of the Homo naledi fossils and what it may suggest. Below that, a narrow vertical chute would have eventually led down to the area where the fossils were discovered. While geology changes over time and the cave system likely has undergone its fair share, it is not likely that these difficult features arose after Homo naledi lived. This has made scientists curious as to how the bones ended up in the bottom Archaic Homo 433 of the cave system in the first place. It has been suggested that Homo naledi deposited the bones there, one way or another. Another competing idea is that a few individuals may have entered the cave system to escape a predator and then got stuck.

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